Violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Violence - Essay Example The humans tend to fall in line with overall societal and normative outlook of the society so that they should not appear aliens to the local setup. The individual behaviors remain dependent on others from the beginning. The children are known to be dependent on their parents for fulfillment of their needs and wants. The interdependencies of a society often tend individuals to mold their personal behaviors according to the cultural norms of the community (Butler pp. 17). The community is primarily responsible for providing for the fundamental necessities of life. The societies are famous for exhibiting ruthless and inhumane behaviors towards those who do not conform to the acceptable cultural practices and therefore, they are often denied basic human rights. The human life is always under the profound influence and spell of the society and because of this reason, nobody does not have the full capacity and power to act alone. The sexual life of an individual is considered a very priva te matter of the person but they are informally regulated by the masses. The social constructivism theory states that individuals always observe the collective behavior of the society and attempt to embrace its norms and values. ... The human civilization is made up of communal relations and therefore, the individuals have to demonstrate conformation with societal norms in order to appear legitimate members of the certain community. However, the philosophical minorities initially gather their supporters to form institutions and once these centers are formalized then the followers of the neglected philosophy have the option to practice their beliefs in a controlled environment. The gay and lesbian communities formed centers where people can follow their sexual orientation in an isolated environment. The attempts are being made in order to promote gay and lesbian relations. But, the struggles are not proving to be fruitful in terms of attaining the goals in a short term perspective. The changes will take significantly long period of time in order to become an accepted practice in the culture of developed nations. The cultural norms are considered as the most notable obstacle and hindrance in the way of profound cu ltural acceptability of gay and lesbian relationships. The contemporary marital bonds evolved as people got more and more dissatisfied with conventional marriages. The intra-sex relations were falling apart and both the genders argued that their partners did not understand and respond to their deep seated needs and wants. The intersex relations then became popular because members of the same gender knew the art of pleasing their partners. The growing demand of sex toys is an evident proof that homosexuality is growing in all parts of the world. Nevertheless, it is very much imperative to note that lesbians and gays are famous for acting normal in the public so that they should not end up alienated in the society (Butler pp.20). They are however, famous for seeking their ideal

Critical analysis of market access with regard to the ECJ rules on Outline

Critical analysis of market access with regard to the ECJ rules on free movement of goods - Outline Example To be noted in this regard, ECJ has imposed a few laws regarding the free movements of goods and market integration within EU member states. ECJ has also imposed several laws that has emphasised environmental protection as well as social policies ensuring transparency and equality to a considerable extent2. Based on this understanding, the study intends to examine the pros and cons associated with the free movement of goods allowed by ECJ, to obtain a critical purview of the market access enjoyed by participant countries. An elaborated rational will be delivered regarding the method to be used when considering the stated aim for this study. To be noted in this regard, as the study will follow a qualitative approach, it is important to determine the variables to be considered when performing the intended thematic analysis of the gather information. With this emphasis, the chapter will hence discuss about the assumptions taken to interpret how market access to EU, for the member states as well as for the foreign nationals, are getting influenced by the prevailing free trade regime as per the ECJ. This chapter will elaborate on the importance of ECJ over internal market integration. This particular chapter will therefore contain a critical review of the viewpoints presented by researchers that will help to provide a detailed overview regarding the ECJ’s contribution towards the market integration. A methodological brief of the study will also be delivered in this section wherein the rationalisation will be provided concerning the selection of the literature. To be stated precisely, literature published within the span of past 10 years will be considered for the study, although this bar of the mentioned period will be ignored when referring to cases. That is, cases must be relevant to free trade of goods in EU and be registered under ECJ to be

Diglossia and the variation of the colloquial arabic

Diglossia and the variation of the colloquial arabic 1.0 Introduction: In many speech communities where speakers use two or more varieties of the same language in different situations, a phenomenon called diglossia exists. The purpose of this paper is to discuss diglossia in the Arab community, as this is one of the communities that have been classified by Ferguson (1959) to be examples of diglossic language situations. It was my original intention to focus specifically on the Libyan context. However, a paucity of information on the Libyan context has meant that the major focus of the assignment is on Arabic in general. However, in the final section of the paper, I do make brief reference to Libya. After defining diglossia, the characteristic features of diglossia as determined by Ferguson will be discussed too. I will then, provide a description of diglossia in Arabic, followed by the origins of Arabic diglossia. A description of classical/modern standard and colloquial Arabic will be also provided, together with their usage in different domains. Finally, I will put forward some arguments and studies on Arabic diglossia, which have been introduced by linguists, as well as Arabic dialects and how variation of Arabic dialects is sometimes considered to be problematic. 2.0 Diglossia defined The term diglossia was introduced from French ‘diglossie by Ferguson (1959), who is credited with first using this term in an article he wrote in 1959. According to him, diglossia refers to ‘one particular kind of standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play (Ferguson, 1959:232). In other words, when two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community and each one is used for different purposes, diglossia exists. Usually, according to Richards et al (1992:108), one is a more standard variety called the high variety or (H- variety) which is used for example in educational institutions (lectures at universities), religious services (prayers, sermons in mosques and churches). The other one is called the low variety or (L- variety), which is used in family context, social interactions and shopping. In addition, Ferguson has identified four languages which he thinks fit into his definition of diglossia. Those languages are Greek, Arabic, Haitian Creole and Swiss German. In all four areas, there seems to be a similar functional distribution between two varieties of the same language, which are called in Fergusons terminology high variety (H) and low variety (L). 3.0 The characteristic features of Diglossia Ferguson (1959: 235) suggests that the different uses of H and L varieties can be described with reference to the following criteria: Specialized Functions One of the most important features of diglossia is the ‘specialization of function for High and Low forms'(Ferguson, 1959:235). In other words, each form has special domains to be used in. For example, the High form is used in religious sermons, letter writing, parliamentary speech, university lectures, news broadcasts, newspaper editorials and poetry, whereas the Low form is used in family conversation, folk literature, and soap opera. Slight overlapping between the two forms occurs, i.e. sometimes the two forms might be used in one domain by switching from H to L and vice versa. H and L are used for different purposes, and native speakers would find it odd if anyone used H in an L domain, or L in an H domain. Acquisition Low (L) is the mother tongue of the speaker in the concerned defining languages (Arabic, Greek Haitian Creole and Swiss German), which have been determined by Ferguson. All speakers learn it as a first language at home as they are more comfortable in the L form than the H. The H form is normally learnt by formal instruction in schools. Standardization In all the defining languages, H is highly standardised and may have a long tradition of grammatical study associated with it. In other words, grammars, dictionaries are a large literature which is associated with it. The L form may not be standardised. In Arabic, for example, the L form has no standard grammatical rules as it differs from one Arabic region to another region, and every Arabic community has its own local L form (dialect). Prestige H is always considered to be more highly valued than the L as a result of the fact that the H variety is used in literature, religious texts, public speaking etc. The L variety is less associated with the written word and is often considered to be a corrupt version of H. It may be found in popular advertising, folklore poetry or used in drama, e.g. to describe comic characters. For Arab Muslims, for example, H is considered to be the language of the Koran, and it is widely believed to ‘constitute the words of God and even to be outside the limits of space and time (Ferguson, 1959:238). Grammar, lexicon and phonology The syntactic system of H varieties are generally thought to be more complex than the L in terms of grammatical features such as, tense, gender and number. Complex sentence structures are thought not to be a feature of L in the languages determined by Ferguson. The lexicon of the two varieties, on the other hand, is largely shared but there is a difference on account of the specific domains in which each is used. H and L may share the same phonological system, but even at this level of grammar, the H variety is felt to have more complicated phonetic features. 4.0 Fishmans extension of diglossia In 1967, Fishman revised and expanded Fergusons original definition of diglossia. Fishman believed that diglossia must be distinguished from bilingualism (Fasold, 1984). He suggests that bilingualism refers to an individuals ability to use more than one language variety, whereas diglossia refers to the distribution of more than one language variety to serve different communication tasks in a society. However, Fishman states the view, which he attributes to J. Gumperz that ‘diglossia exists not only in multilingual societies which officially recognize several ‘languages but, also, in societies which are multilingual in the sense that they employ separate dialects, registers or functionally differentiated language varieties of whatever kind (Fishman, 1967:30). Fishman proposes that classic diglossia could be extended to situations where forms of two genetically unrelated languages occupy the H and L domains, such that one of the languages is used for education, law, literary and religion while another is the home language. Moreover, his extension depends on his focus on domain. In a community, for example, where speakers use two languages, they will obviously not use both in all circumstances. They use only one language in certain circumstances, and in others, they use the other one. Fishman cites Paraguay as an example for his claim where there are two languages which are known by almost everybody. In Paraguay, Spanish is used as the high formal language, whereas Guarani is used as the low informal language. Fishmans reference to Paraguay illustrates how far apart linguistically two languages may be and still be in a diaglossic relationship. From the above two conceptions of diglossia, we come to a conclusion that both scholars, Ferguson and Fishman agree that the H variety is used for formal purposes and the L variety is used for less formal, more personal uses. However, they disagree when Ferguson distinguishes diglossia from the relationship between standard and colloquial, whereas Fishman mentions the possibility that more than two language varieties can be reserved for specific functions in a society. In addition, Fergusons view is limited two language varieties, whereas Fishmans view is more than two language varieties can be reserved for specific functions in a society (Fasold, 1984). Having defined the term ‘diglossia and the way the concept has been extended by Fishman; I now turn to a discussion in the Arabic context. 5.0 Digloss ia in Arabic Arabic iÃ'• a mÐ µmbÐ µr of thÐ µ Ð…Ð µmitic languagÐ µ family, which itÃ'•Ð µlf iÃ'• part of thÐ µ widÐ µr AfroaÃ'•iatic phylum including AnciÐ µnt Еgyptian, Coptic, CuÃ'•hitic, BÐ µrbÐ µr, and Chadic. OthÐ µr principal mÐ µmbÐ µrÃ'• of thÐ µ Ð…Ð µmitic family arÐ µ thÐ µ ЕaÃ'•t Ð…Ð µmitic languagÐ µÃ'• of Akkadian and ЕblaitÐ µ (both now long dÐ µad), and thÐ µ WÐ µÃ'•t Ð…Ð µmitic lan ¬guagÐ µÃ'• Aramaic, Ugaritic, thÐ µ CanaanitÐ µ languagÐ µÃ'• (including HÐ µbrÐ µw), anciÐ µnt and modÐ µrn Ð…outh Arabian, and thÐ µ Ð…Ð µmitic languagÐ µÃ'• of Еthiopia (for Ð µxamplÐ µ, GÐ µÃ µz, TigrÐ µ, Tigrinya, and Amharic) (HÐ µtzron 1992: 412-13;2 FabÐ µr 1997: 6; cf. BÐ µÃ µÃ'•ton 1970: 11). 5.1 The Ã'•prÐ µad of Arabic The original homeland of Ã'•pÐ µakÐ µrÃ'• of Arabic is thÐ µ cÐ µntral and northern rÐ µgionÃ'• of thÐ µ Arabian PÐ µninÃ'•ula. ThÐ µ lowÐ µr half of thÐ µ Arabian PÐ µninÃ'•ula waÃ'• inhabitÐ µd by Ã'•pÐ µakÐ µrÃ'• of languagÐ µÃ'• known aÃ'• Еpigraphic Ð…outh Arabian (HÐ µtzron 1992: 412). ThÐ µ Ð µnd of thÐ µ Ã'•ixth cÐ µntury CЕ, howÐ µvÐ µr, Ã'•aw thÐ µ riÃ'•Ð µ of thÐ µ nÐ µw rÐ µligion of IÃ'•lam promotÐ µd by thÐ µ ProphÐ µt Muhammad within thÐ µ Arabian PÐ µninÃ'•ula in what iÃ'• now Ð…audi Arabia. ThÐ µ nÐ µw IÃ'•lamic Ã'•tatÐ µ Ã'•prÐ µad rapidly throughout thÐ µ PÐ µninÃ'•ula, and within 100 yÐ µarÃ'• had Ð µxtÐ µndÐ µd north into thÐ µ LÐ µvant, Ð µaÃ'•t into Iraq and KhuziÃ'•tan, and wÐ µÃ'•t into North Africa. OvÐ µr thÐ µ cÐ µnturiÐ µÃ'•, thÐ µ rÐ µligiouÃ'• frontiÐ µrÃ'• of IÃ'•lam Ã'•trÐ µtchÐ µd into Ð…pain, Africa, India, and IndonÐ µ Ã'•ia, and acroÃ'•Ã'• cÐ µntral AÃ'•ia into Tur ­kÐ µÃ'•tan and China (Gibb 1978: 10). ThÐ µ riÃ'•Ð µ and Ð µxpanÃ'•ion of IÃ'•lam waÃ'• not only a rÐ µligiouÃ'• and hÐ µncÐ µ cultural conquÐ µÃ'•t, but alÃ'•o a linguiÃ'•tic conquÐ µÃ'•t, and within a fÐ µw hundrÐ µd yÐ µarÃ'• Arabic bÐ µcamÐ µ both thÐ µ official and thÐ µ vÐ µrnacular languagÐ µ of all IÃ'•lamicizÐ µd countriÐ µÃ'• in thÐ µ MiddlÐ µ ЕaÃ'•t. IndÐ µÃ µd, duÐ µ to thÐ µ prÐ µvailing tolÐ µrancÐ µ on thÐ µ part of thÐ µ MuÃ'•limÃ'• to ChriÃ'•tianÃ'• and JÐ µwÃ'•, arabicization waÃ'• morÐ µ complÐ µtÐ µ a procÐ µÃ'•Ã'• and progrÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µd at a grÐ µatÐ µr ratÐ µ than iÃ'•lamicization (VÐ µrÃ'•tÐ µÃ µgh 1997: 93). In thÐ µ courÃ'•Ð µ of thÐ µ Ã'•prÐ µad of IÃ'•lam, Arabic found itÃ'•Ð µlf in contact with a Ã'•Ð µriÐ µÃ'• of forÐ µign languagÐ µÃ'• which it haÃ'• tÐ µndÐ µd to Ã'•upplant. In Еgypt during thÐ µ Ð µarly cÐ µnturiÐ µÃ'• of IÃ'•lamic domination, thÐ µ Coptic patriarchÃ'• communicatÐ µd with thÐ µ Arab conquÐ µrÐ µrÃ'• through intÐ µrprÐ µtÐ µrÃ'•. By thÐ µ tÐ µnth cÐ µntury CЕ, thÐ µ Coptic biÃ'•hop Ð…Ð µvÐ µruÃ'• of ЕÃ'•hmunÐ µin complainÐ µd that moÃ'•t CoptÃ'• no longÐ µr undÐ µrÃ'•tood Ð µithÐ µr GrÐ µÃ µk or Coptic, only Arabic. In UppÐ µr Еgypt, Coptic waÃ'• limitÐ µd to a fÐ µw Ã'•mall pockÐ µtÃ'• in thÐ µ countryÃ'•idÐ µ and to thÐ µ clÐ µrgy in monaÃ'•tÐ µriÐ µÃ'• by thÐ µ fourtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µn ­tury CЕ (VÐ µrÃ'•tÐ µÃ µgh 1997: 95). It iÃ'• gÐ µnÐ µrally bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd that by thÐ µ Ã'•ixtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µntury CЕ thÐ µ uÃ'•à  µ of Coptic waÃ'• rÐ µÃ'•trictÐ µd to liturgy in thÐ µ Coptic church (cf. LopriÐ µno 1995: 7). In North Africa, Arabic bÐ µcamÐ µ thÐ µ dominant languagÐ µ of thÐ µ citiÐ µÃ'•, but BÐ µrbÐ µr managÐ µd to rÐ µÃ'•iÃ'•t thÐ µ Ã'•prÐ µad of Arabic in thÐ µ rural intÐ µrior. In Morocco and AlgÐ µria, in particular, BÐ µrbÐ µr haÃ'• rÐ µtainÐ µd itÃ'• vitality alongÃ'•idÐ µ Arabic to thiÃ'• day. LikÐ µwiÃ'•Ð µ in limitÐ µd arÐ µaÃ'• in thÐ µ FÐ µrtilÐ µ CrÐ µÃ'•cÐ µnt, dialÐ µctÃ'• of Ð…yriac havÐ µ pÐ µrÃ'•iÃ'•tÐ µd and havÐ µ influÐ µncÐ µd nÐ µighbouring Arabic dialÐ µctÃ'•. 5.2 ThÐ µ Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µncÐ µ of a Ã'•tandard languagÐ µ and digloÃ'•Ã'•ia ThÐ µ litÐ µrary Arabic languagÐ µ bÐ µgan to attain a Ã'•tandard form through thÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlop ­mÐ µnt of grammatical normÃ'• in thÐ µ Ð µighth cÐ µntury CЕ (FiÃ'•chÐ µr 1997: 188). ThiÃ'• Ã'•tandard languagÐ µ can bÐ µ tÐ µrmÐ µd Ð…tandard Arabic, thÐ µ tÐ µrmÃ'• ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic and ModÐ µm Ð…tandard Arabic bÐ µing uÃ'•Ð µd to dÐ µÃ'•cribÐ µ itÃ'• mÐ µdiÐ µval and modÐ µm variantÃ'•, rÐ µÃ'•pÐ µctivÐ µly. ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic waÃ'• baÃ'•Ð µd primarily on thÐ µ languagÐ µ of thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn Hij azi tribÐ µ of QurayÃ'•h, with Ã'•omÐ µ intÐ µrfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ from prÐ µ- IÃ'•lamic poÐ µtic koinÐ µ and Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•. ThÐ µ languagÐ µ waÃ'• codifiÐ µd in thÐ µ Qur an, thÐ µ holy book of IÃ'•lam. Although thÐ µ lÐ µxiÃ'• and Ã'•tyliÃ'•ticÃ'• of ModÐ µm Ð…tandard Arabic arÐ µ rathÐ µr diffÐ µrÐ µnt from thoÃ'•Ð µ of ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical A rabic, thÐ µ morphology and Ã'•yntax havÐ µ rÐ µmainÐ µd baÃ'•i ­cally unchangÐ µd ovÐ µr thÐ µ cÐ µnturiÐ µÃ'• (FiÃ'•chÐ µr 1997: 188). ThÐ µ vÐ µrnacular Arabic dialÐ µctÃ'•, by contraÃ'•t, havÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd markÐ µdly during thiÃ'• pÐ µriod. LikÐ µ a numbÐ µr of othÐ µr languagÐ µÃ'•, thÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ, Arabic camÐ µ to havÐ µ onÐ µ Ã'•tandard variÐ µty and a largÐ µ numbÐ µr of rÐ µgional and Ã'•ocial dialÐ µctÃ'•. UnlikÐ µ many Ã'•uch languagÐ µÃ'•, howÐ µvÐ µr, no onÐ µ in thÐ µ Arab world iÃ'• brought up Ã'•pÐ µaking Standard Arabic as their mother tongue: an Arab childÃ'• mothÐ µr tonguÐ µ will bÐ µ thÐ µ rÐ µgional or social variety of Arabic of itÃ'• homÐ µ rÐ µgion, whilÐ µ Ð…tandard Arabic, if it iÃ'• maÃ'•tÐ µrÐ µd at all, iÃ'• lÐ µarnt formally at Ã'•chool or at homÐ µ aÃ'• part of thÐ µ childÃ'• Ð µducation. Ð…tandard Arabic iÃ'• confinÐ µd to formal writ tÐ µn and Ã'•pokÐ µn occaÃ'•ionÃ'•, and thÐ µ rÐ µgional/Ã'•ocial variÐ µty of Arabic iÃ'• uÃ'•Ð µd at all othÐ µr timÐ µÃ'•. Ð…tandard Arabic now diffÐ µrÃ'• conÃ'•idÐ µrably from rÐ µgional and Ã'•ocial colloquial variÐ µtiÐ µÃ'• of Arabic in tÐ µrmÃ'• of itÃ'• phonology, morph ­ology, Ã'•yntax, and lÐ µxicon. According to LipinÃ'•ki (1997: 75), Ã'•uch digloÃ'•Ã'•ia in Arabic bÐ µgan to Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µ at thÐ µ latÐ µÃ'•t in thÐ µ Ã'•ixth cÐ µntury CЕ whÐ µn oral poÐ µtÃ'• rÐ µcitÐ µd thÐ µir poÐ µtry in a proto-ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic baÃ'•Ð µd on archaic dialÐ µctÃ'• which diffÐ µrÐ µd grÐ µatly from thÐ µir own (cf. alÃ'•o VollÐ µrÃ'• 1906; WÐ µhr 1952; DiÐ µm 1973, citÐ µd in FiÃ'•chÐ µr 1997: 188). DialÐ µctÃ'• of Arabic form a roughly continuouÃ'• Ã'•pÐ µctrum of variation, with thÐ µ dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•pokÐ µn in thÐ µ Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn and wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µÃ'• of thÐ µ Arab-Ã'•pÐ µaking world bÐ µing mutually unintÐ µlligiblÐ µ. On thÐ µ baÃ'•iÃ'• of cÐ µrtain linguiÃ'•tic fÐ µaturÐ µÃ'•, Arabic dialÐ µctÃ'• can bÐ µ dividÐ µd into two major gÐ µographical groupÃ'•: thÐ µ firÃ'•t compriÃ'•Ð µÃ'• dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•pokÐ µn Ð µaÃ'•t of a linÐ µ running from Ð…alum in thÐ µ north to roughly thÐ µ Ð…udan-Chad bordÐ µr in thÐ µ Ã'•outh; thÐ µ Ã'•Ð µcond compriÃ'•Ð µÃ'• thÐ µ Maghribi dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•po ­kÐ µn to thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•t of thiÃ'• linÐ µ. ThÐ µ main phonological fÐ µaturÐ µÃ'• which diÃ'•tinguiÃ'•h thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µct group from thÐ µ Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn includÐ µ thÐ µ typical rÐ µduction of thÐ µ triangu ­lar Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm of Ã' •hort vowÐ µlÃ'•, a, i, u, which iÃ'• found in Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•, to a two-vowÐ µl Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm (FiÃ'•chÐ µr and JaÃ'•trow 1980: 33); and a contraÃ'•t bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn an iambic word ­Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'• Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm in thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn group and a trochaic word-Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'• Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm in thÐ µ Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn group. ThuÃ'•, a word Ã'•uch aÃ'• katab hÐ µ wrotÐ µ will bÐ µ typically Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µd aÃ'• katab in wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•, but aÃ'• katab in Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•. In wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•, thÐ µ com ­bination of an iambic Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'• Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm togÐ µthÐ µr with a tÐ µndÐ µncy to dÐ µlÐ µtÐ µ unÃ'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µd vowÐ µlÃ'• lÐ µadÃ'• to word-initial conÃ'•onant cluÃ'•tÐ µrÃ'• which arÐ µ not typically attÐ µÃ'•tÐ µd in Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•: in thÐ µ Moroccan Arabic dialÐ µct o f Lmnabha, Ã'•min fat (ЕlmÐ µd ­laoui 1995: 139) iÃ'• thÐ µ cognatÐ µ ofCairÐ µnÐ µ Ã'•imin; and thÐ µ word for outÃ'•idÐ µ iÃ'• rÐ µal ­izÐ µd aÃ'• brra in Lmnabha (ЕlmÐ µdlaoui 1995: 157), but aÃ'• barra in CairÐ µnÐ µ. DialÐ µctÃ'• of a languagÐ µ which haÃ'• Ã'•pÐ µakÐ µrÃ'• aÃ'• Ð µthnically and Ã'•ocially divÐ µrÃ'•Ð µ aÃ'• Arabic, howÐ µvÐ µr, cannot bÐ µ dividÐ µd in purÐ µly gÐ µographic tÐ µrmÃ'•. DialÐ µctÃ'• arÐ µ alÃ'•o commonly diÃ'•tinguiÃ'•hÐ µd along a bÐ µdouin-urban axiÃ'•: bÐ µdouin dialÐ µctÃ'• tÐ µnd to bÐ µ morÐ µ conÃ'•Ð µrvativÐ µ and homogÐ µnouÃ'•, whilÐ µ urban dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•how morÐ µ Ð µvolu ­tivÐ µ tÐ µndÐ µnciÐ µÃ'• and uÃ'•ually Ð µxhibit fairly clÐ µar intra-dialÐ µctal variation baÃ'•Ð µd on agÐ µ, gÐ µndÐ µr, Ã'•ocial claÃ'•Ã'•, and rÐ µligion. Typical BÐ µdouin fÐ µaturÐ µÃ'• includÐ µ thÐ µ voicÐ µd rÐ µflÐ µx of ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic qd], prÐ µÃ'•Ð µrvation of thÐ µ ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic intÐ µrdÐ µntalÃ'•, and a gÐ µndÐ µr diÃ'•tinction in thÐ µ Ã'•Ð µcond and third pÐ µrÃ'•onÃ'• plural of thÐ µ vÐ µrb, pro ­nounÃ'•, and pr onoun Ã'•uffixÐ µÃ'• (VÐ µrÃ'•tÐ µÃ µgh 1997: 144). DiÃ'•tinctionÃ'• bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn bÐ µdouin and urban dialÐ µctÃ'• appÐ µar to bÐ µ lÐ µÃ'•Ã'• markÐ µd in thÐ µ ЕaÃ'•t, howÐ µvÐ µr, particularly in thÐ µ PÐ µninÃ'•ula, than thÐ µy arÐ µ in North Africa (FiÃ'•chÐ µr and JaÃ'•trow 1980: 24). Diglossia is a term which is usually applied to the sociolinguistic situation in much of the Arabic speaking world. In those countries, there are two forms of the same language (Arabic), the high and low variety. The high form is called fusha classical or modern standard Arabic which is normally used in formal situations, such as writing, political speeches and university lectures. The low form which is referred to dialects of Arab communities is used in informal situations, such as conversations, shopping and social rituals. The Arabic language represents a continuum. At one end of this continuum is the modern standard Arabic, and at the other lies the low form which represents the various dialects of the Arab communities. These two ends, in fact are only ideal types, i.e. pure standard or pure colloquial, in fact do not exist. In other words, even in the most pure standard text, we may find some colloquial terms and vice versa (Hary, 1996:72). A persons place on this continuum would be somewhere between the two forms. In other words, where a given persons speech sits on this continuum depends on a lot of factors including speaker, conversation topic and setting. For example, how well the two speakers know each other and the formality of the speech as when giving university lectures and sermons. Furthermore, in Arabic communities, classical Arabic fusha is deemed as the language of the Koran and is still the current written form of the language. At the beginning of the Islamic period, only two sources of literary Arabic were available; the Koran and the pre-Islamic poems al-shear al-jaheli. The Koran described itself arabiyyan ‘Arabic when it was revealed. This seems clear from the following verse of the Koran Q 43/2-3 which says; ( wa-l-kitabi: l-mubini: inna ga alnahu quraanan arabiyyan la allakum ta qiluna) ‘By the clear book: we have made it an Arabic recitation in order that you may understand. According to Versteegh ( 2001:53), the Koran and the pre-Islamic poems play a crucial role in the ‘standardization and development of the Arabic language. Colloquial Arabic ammyya or darja as it is called in North Africa, on the other hand, exists as the vernacular varieties of the major Arabic speaking communities. It is very often used, especially in daily spoken form. In some of the Arab contexts, for example, if somebody uses standard Arabic in the street, he might be laughed at since using MSA in such domains seems odd. Cown (1968) believes that ‘Arabs are native speakers of NSA [non-standard Arabic] and not MSA [modern standard Arabic] (Mahmoud, 2000:129). In other words, modern standard Arabic has no native speakers. Moreover, colloquial Arabic is subject to regional variation, not only between different countries, but also within regions in the same country as we shall see in the Libyan context in the same country. 5.2 Origins of Arabic Diglossia A number of theories have been introduced by researchers and scholars to interpret the origins of the Arabic diglossia. These theories might be classified into the following three groups; theories which assume the existence of a Koine, those which recommend an explanation of language drift and those which use the hypothesis of Creolization/Pidginization. 5.2.1 Koine The Koine hypothesis is the prevalent theory in terms of the origins of the Arabic diglossia. Koine is a term ‘derived from Greek denoting a lingua franca that develops out of a mixture of languages or dialects (Bishop, 1998:4). In an article entitled The Arabic Koinz, Ferguson assumed that thecommon source of all the Arabic dialects existing outside the Arabian Peninsula was as a result of a variety spoken in the military camps during the middle of the seventh century at the time of the Islamic expansion, and this variety was different from the language of the Koran. In other words, these dialects are not corrupt form, however, they have had a separate existence from the classical language since they have existed outside the Arabic peninsula (Freeman, 1996: 1-2). Ferguson assumes that the majority of the Arabic modern dialects are derived from a koine which existed side by side with the standard/classical Arabic and was not based on any particular regional area. He built his argument on fourteen features, which he thought differ from standard and colloquial Arabic. According to Ferguson, then, diglossia started as a result of the Koine and considered to be the basis of Modern colloquial Arabic (Bishop,1998:4). 5.2.2 Language drift This theory attributes the difference between modern standard Arabic and colloquial Arabic to language drift, natural Semitic change tendencies (as Arabic is one of the Semitic languages) and basic effects among others. Those who recommend these theories feel that the Koine hypothesis is unnecessary and unjustified by the evidence available. However, both sides, those who advocate these theories and the Koine theory agree that language changes likely occur in towns rather than in the dialects of the Bedouin tribes who live in the Arabian deserts because the Bedouin dialects remained unchanged for several centuries after the arrival of Islam. Secondly, they agree that there was no language center in the Arab world which caused the changes seen as a result of its influence. Finally, both sides agree that the Islamic conquests were behind precipitating the rise of the colloquial Arabic dialects. Blau (1988, cited in Bishop, 1998:5), on the other hand, claims that Fergusons argument in terms of the Koine is unconvincing. He argues that the reverse of his argument was correct, i.e. the Koine itself was resulted from the changes of the Arabic dialects, and not as Ferguson said that the Koine was the origin of the modern Arabic dialects (Kaye, 1998:5). 5.2.3 Pidginization/Creolization Before discussing this theory, I would like to give a brief definition of Pidginization and Creolization. According to Richards et al (1992:277), Pidgin means a ‘language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. In other words, when speakers of one language, for example, engage in trade with speakers of another, and neither knows the others language, the language used between them is called Pidgin. Creole on the other hand, arises when a pidgin language becomes the native language of a new generation of children as a result of this contact. Versteegh (1984, cited in Bishop, 1998:5) argues that the two theories mentioned above regarding the development of Arabic diglossia are either a focus on an explanation of the similarities or the differences of the dialects without treating the other side. In his estimation, Versteegh argues that an affective theory should deal with both sides of the Arabic dialects. By this hypothesis, Versteegh dealt with both the similarities and the differences between the modern dialects of Arabic. To prove his hypothesis, he gave an example of mixed marriages between Muslim Arab men and non-Arab women of the conquered peoples during the Islamic conquest. This marriage, he said would likely have led to communication using a pidginized form of Arabic and the children who would be delivered as a result of this marriage would have probably spoken a creolised Arabic. 6.0 Classical/modern standard Arabic and colloquial Arabic Before starting to explain different uses of modern standard and colloquial Arabic, I would like to illustrate the difference between classical and modern standard Arabic. Classical Arabic is considered to be the formal version that was used in the Al-Hijaz region (currently Saudi Arabia) 1500 years ago. The Koran was revealed in classical Arabic, which is the main reason why the Arabic language has preserved its purity throughout centuries and is considered an important part of the Arabic culture. Modern standard Arabic (MSA), on the other hand, is an equivalent to the classical Arabic and nowadays it is used as the official language of the Arab states. Ferguson defined MSA as ‘the Arabs ATTEMPT to speak classical Arabic (Kaye, 1972:46; emphasis in the original). The main difference between modern standard Arabic and classical Arabic lies in the vocabulary, i.e. MSA reflects the needs of contemporary expression, whereas Classical Arabic reflects the needs of older styles. A lot of lexical terms of classical standard Arabic, for instance, have become obsolete these days, and they are substituted by new modern words. For example, in classical standard Arabic kittab was used for the word ‘letter,but in modern Arabic, ressala is used instead and rassol ‘messenger instead of mabooth. However, Modern Standard Arabic is grammatically simpler than classical and includes numerous words unknown to the Quran, such as hasib aali ‘computer and shabaket almalomaat â €˜internet. The two varieties, standard and colloquial Arabic divide among themselves the domains of speaking and writing, formal and informal and sometimes both varieties are used side by side in only one domain. The following discussion will attempt to show where these two varieties can be found in the Arabic community. On Arabic television and radio, the news is always presented in modern standard Arabic. This might be because it is watched and listened to by different native speakers of different Arab regions. On some programmes, for instance, the speakers usually start from a written text in standard Arabic, but in reading it they sometimes let themselves be influenced by the target group. In other words, programmes which are presented for special categories of community, for instance housewives, farmers and fishermen, the structure of the standard Arabic text remains unchanged, but at regular pauses colloquial markers and words are inserted. Particles and words such as bita ‘of illi ‘that is are introduced to give a signal to the audience the intention of the speaker, which is according to Versteegs (2001:195) to ‘create an atmosphere of intimacy and warmth. In other words, speakers tend to use some colloquial particles or words to simplify the discussion and to be more close t o the group concerned. Some of the Arab leaders, for example, use colloquial Arabic when they speak to their peoples, to communicate better with them, as they all understand their colloquial Arabic, whereas they use standard Arabic when they make speeches in other Arab countries since the colloquial Arabic in those countries are different from theirs. All books and newspapers in Arabic states are written in standard Arabic, apart from those little cases where colloquial Arabic is rather used, for instance cartoons in newspapers or dialogues of illiterate characters in some novels are sometimes written in colloquial language. Although most literary works are written in standard, they regulary contain colloquialisms. This is also true in movie scripts such as dialogues and theatre plays, even when they are written in standard, they are often staged in dialect. This is perhaps because written works are only read and seen by literate people, who have studied standard Arabic at school (Versteegs, 2001). Plays, songs, folk poetry and popular proverbs are usually performed and written in colloquial Arabic. Some expressions in Arabic, however, although classical, are used both in classical and colloquial domains. For example: tusbihuuna alaa khayr (I hope you wake up in the morning [only used at night] and everything is fine). baaraka allaahu fiika (may Allah [God] bless you): used formally and informally instead of thank you or thank you so much. The titles tabib and tabiibah refer to medical doctors, but native Arabic speakers rarely use these standard forms in their colloquial speech. Instead, they prefer to use the terms alduktor (referring to an M.D or a PhD) or alhakim, which is equivalent to alduktor (referring only to an M.D.) because they sound more prestigious, especially the former form. Lessons and lectures in schools and universities, on the other hand, are mostly introduced in standard Arabic within Arab states. In other words, introducing lessons and lectures in standard Arabic seems to be compulsory in most of the Arab countries. Tutorial discussions, on the other hand, are introduced in both colloquial and standard Arabic. Colloquial Arabic is the language of family and home and is widely used in Arabic communities because it is the mother tongue of all Arab native speakers. When the child starts learning language from his/her parents, almost all lexical and phonological terms are colloquial Arabic. 7.0 Recent studies on diglossia in Arabic contexts When Ferguson introduced his paper on diglossia in 1959, he concluded with ‘an appeal for further study of [diglossic] phenomenon and related ones (Ferguson, 1959:249). Consequently, linguists and scholars have made various efforts and studies on this phenomenon. In the following, I will examine some of those arguments and how they contrast with Fergusons original study. 7.1 Badawis study of Diglossia In an attempt to show how the linguistic system of modern standard Arabic works, the Egyptian linguist, Badawi (1973) has presented his study on the sociolinguistic situation in Egypt (applies on most of the Arabic contexts), in which he rejects Fergusons description of diglossia which says that H and L varieties are in complementary distribution in the Arab world and other communities (Versteegh, 2001). In contrast with Fergusons model and in attempt to subdivide the continuum between the two extremes of standard Arabic and colloquial, Badawi has determined the following five levels model as follows: 1. fusha at-turrat ‘classical Arabic only used in Quranic recitation 2. fusha al-asr ‘Modern standard Arabic the standard form of the language used in writing and sometimes on formal occasions in speaking 3. ammiyyat al-mutaqqafin ‘colloquial of the intellectuals the formal spoken language of educated people 4. ammiyyat al-mutanawwirin ‘colloquial of the literate the informal spoken language of educated people 5. ammiyyat al-ummiyyin ‘colloquial of the illiterate the language in which the illiterate talk (Versteegh, 2001:191) It is noticed from the above that every level represents a different class of people in different domains. For example, the consonant /ÃŽËœ/as in thalatha ‘three is considered classical Arabic, /t/ as in talata ‘three is considered colloquial, whereas /s/ as in salasa (this level is not used in all Arabic contexts) is used between the two extremes (Hary, 1996:7). To show how the linguistic system of modern Arabic works, Badawi offered a diagram (in the appendix) in which it seems clear that every level is a mixture of all the other levels, i.e. every level contains fush a ‘classical, ammiyya or darja ‘colloquial and dakhiil ‘foreign elements. In other words, even the speech of the illiterate contains elements of the high variety (fusha) or modern standard Arabic ( fusha al- asr), and standard Arabic, on the other hand, contains lexis, phonology and morphology of the colloquial of the illiterate (Freeman, 1996:4). In his study, Badawi proved that there is a continuum between standard and colloquial Arabic, and claimed that there is no duality in the Arab world, but continued levels of language. Then, he looked at the colloquial Arabic not as corrupt or different and independent from the standard Arabic, but as one of these levels suggested in his new model of Arabic language. However, although I agree with Badawis new model of the Arabic language, I think a point has not been taken into his account while studying this phenomenon, i.e. the colloquial level of illiterate (those who do not know standard Arabic at all) has recently been developed as a result of the development of radio and t

Depression and Antidepressants Essay -- Chemistry Depression Papers

Depression and Antidepressants Specifically the serotonergic hypothesis and the action of Prozac The cause of Clinical depression has long been a mystery to physicians and researchers. Many different theories have been proposed, but no conclusive evidence has been put forth. However, most of what we know about depression stems from the results of certain drugs which have been successful in treating the clinically depressed. These anti--depressants have led to the assumption that depression is most likely due to a chemical imbalance (of neurotransmitters) which somehow leads to the symptoms of depression. To try and write a paper on all the theories of depression would be endless, as would be a study on all the different types of anti-depressants. Therefore I have tried to focus my paper on the serotonin hypothesis for depression, and more specifically how the serotonergic anti-depressants have backed up this theory. Of course, Any paper on serotonin-based anti-depressants must include the popular Prozac. Because of the excitement And controversy surrounding Prozac, I decided to channel most of my paper into the action of this so-called "wonder drug". Fluoxetine is a second-generation anti-depressant which was developed and marketed as PROZAC by the drug company Eli Lilly. This drug is increasingly being prescribed by physicians as the primary anti-depressant when a patient requires pharmacotherapy. This is mainly due to fluexotine’s reduced side affects as compared with the older tricyclic anti-depressants. Fluoxetine is known to act as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in brain synapses where serotonin is the neurotransmitter. However, an exact mechanism has not born elucidated. Information about serotonin synaps... ..., June 1992, 89(6):445-446. (cited as 9) Hyman, S. E. & Nestler, E. J. The Molecular Foundations of Psychiatry. Washington Amer. Psych., 1993. (cited as 7 & 8) Nathan, R. S., Perel, J. H., Pollock, B. G. & Kupfer, D. J. The role of neuropharmacologic selectivity in antidepressant action. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, Sept. 1990, 51(9): 367-372. Price, L. O., Charney, D. S., Goodman, W. K., Krystal, J. H., Woods, A. N. & Heninger, G. R. Clinical data on the role of serotonin in the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. Journal Clinical Psychiatry, April 1990, 51: 44-50. (cited as 5) Richelson, E. Antidepressant and brain neurochemistry. Mayo Clinic Proc., Sept. 1990, 65(9): 227-236. Somni, R. W., Crismon, M. L. & Bowden, C. L. Fluoxetine: a serotonin-specific, second-generation antidepressant, Pharmacotherapy, Jan.-Feb. 1987, 7(1): 1-15. Depression and Antidepressants Essay -- Chemistry Depression Papers Depression and Antidepressants Specifically the serotonergic hypothesis and the action of Prozac The cause of Clinical depression has long been a mystery to physicians and researchers. Many different theories have been proposed, but no conclusive evidence has been put forth. However, most of what we know about depression stems from the results of certain drugs which have been successful in treating the clinically depressed. These anti--depressants have led to the assumption that depression is most likely due to a chemical imbalance (of neurotransmitters) which somehow leads to the symptoms of depression. To try and write a paper on all the theories of depression would be endless, as would be a study on all the different types of anti-depressants. Therefore I have tried to focus my paper on the serotonin hypothesis for depression, and more specifically how the serotonergic anti-depressants have backed up this theory. Of course, Any paper on serotonin-based anti-depressants must include the popular Prozac. Because of the excitement And controversy surrounding Prozac, I decided to channel most of my paper into the action of this so-called "wonder drug". Fluoxetine is a second-generation anti-depressant which was developed and marketed as PROZAC by the drug company Eli Lilly. This drug is increasingly being prescribed by physicians as the primary anti-depressant when a patient requires pharmacotherapy. This is mainly due to fluexotine’s reduced side affects as compared with the older tricyclic anti-depressants. Fluoxetine is known to act as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in brain synapses where serotonin is the neurotransmitter. However, an exact mechanism has not born elucidated. Information about serotonin synaps... ..., June 1992, 89(6):445-446. (cited as 9) Hyman, S. E. & Nestler, E. J. The Molecular Foundations of Psychiatry. Washington Amer. Psych., 1993. (cited as 7 & 8) Nathan, R. S., Perel, J. H., Pollock, B. G. & Kupfer, D. J. The role of neuropharmacologic selectivity in antidepressant action. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, Sept. 1990, 51(9): 367-372. Price, L. O., Charney, D. S., Goodman, W. K., Krystal, J. H., Woods, A. N. & Heninger, G. R. Clinical data on the role of serotonin in the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. Journal Clinical Psychiatry, April 1990, 51: 44-50. (cited as 5) Richelson, E. Antidepressant and brain neurochemistry. Mayo Clinic Proc., Sept. 1990, 65(9): 227-236. Somni, R. W., Crismon, M. L. & Bowden, C. L. Fluoxetine: a serotonin-specific, second-generation antidepressant, Pharmacotherapy, Jan.-Feb. 1987, 7(1): 1-15.

Death of a Nation Essay

Clifford Dowdey’s Death of a Nation: The Story of Lee and His Men at Gettysburg is a military history examining the Confederate loss at this epic battle, particularly the decision-making process and the Southern commanders’ failure to perform up to their potential. Partly a fawning defense of Robert E. Lee and partly an insightful study of why the South even dared invade the North, it demonstrates the author’s Southern bias without trying to justify slavery, as well as Dowdey’s fusion of history and storytelling. The book looks almost exclusively at the Civil War’s largest battle, in which Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia invaded the North in hopes of scaring Lincoln into halting the war and recognizing the Confederacy. Instead, as Dowdey’s title implies, it proved the Confederacy’s apex as a military power, beginning its two-year decline and ultimate collapse. Dowdey, a native of Richmond, Virginia, who produced numerous histories and novels about the Civil War, takes a decided pro-Southern stance and offers a rather generous view both of the Confederacy, never approaching its defense of slavery, and of Lee, the inventive, chance-taking commander who proved the South’s greatest leader. The first chapter, â€Å"Rendezvous with Disaster,† conveys in its title how Dowdey sees the battle, yet he is loath to blame Lee for the loss. He opens with an account of Confederate troops invading Pennsylvania, depicting them not as a menacing enemy but as a somewhat merry band: â€Å"[The] Confederate soldiers had not committed acts of vandalism or abused the inhabitants. On the contrary, the troops had been highly good-humored in the face of taunts and insults† (3). The author then introduces the general as a striking, almost godlike figure, quoting an officer who deemed him â€Å"a kingly man whom all men who came into his presence expected to obey† (5); this description recurs throughout the book. Subsequent chapters describe the buildup and the battle itself. In chapter two, â€Å"The Opening Phase,† Dowdey portrays the decision-making process that led to Lee’s invasion of Pennsylvania as a Jefferson Davis-engineered travesty, â€Å"a necessary expedient in the policy of static, scattered defensiveness† (27). The author considers Lee almost a victim of Davis’ vanity, rigidity, and inability to admit his own lack of military expertise, and he absolves the man he believes â€Å"embodied the image of the patriarchal planter who, as military leader, assumed benevolent responsibility for his domain† (33). Throughout the battle, which dominates much of the book, Dowdey introduces Lee’s subordinates as characters in a novel or drama, describing their personalities in lively, even somewhat chatty detail. Jeb Stuart, whose cavalry failed in its reconnaissance duties before the fighting began, appears as a capable soldier who refused to believe he erred; Richard Ewell is a crusty but soft-hearted eccentric whose marriage softened his fighting skills; and John B. Hood is â€Å"a fighter, not a thinker† (174). He reserves his harshest criticisms for James Longstreet, deeming the lone general to openly question Lee’s decision to wage the unwise assault best known as Pickett’s Charge, a lying defeatist. Dowdey claims that â€Å"objective historians and Longstreet partisans have tried to re-evaluate him outside the text of controversy. This is almost impossible. . . . Many other men performed below their potential at Gettysburg, but only James Longstreet absolved himself by blaming Lee† (340). By the end of the book, one realizes that Dowdey will not concede that the figure he admires may have simply made fatal errors at Gettysburg. Dowdey’s descriptions of the battle cover the three days in a generally accurate but not original manner. He alternates between broad, sweeping pictures of dramatic combat and close-up accounts of individual Confederate units and soldiers. (He gives little mention to Union action throughout the book, making clear that his sole interest is depicting Lee’s army and not providing a holistic history of the battle. ) Though his approach provides reliable but not groundbreaking information, Dowdey makes clear that he considers Lee’s defeat not the venerable commander’s fault (despite his own tendency to take long chances against the larger and better-armed Union Army), but rather his subordinates’ inability to perform as competently as they had in previous battles. In this account, Stuart’s ego kept him from realizing he failed in his scouting duties, A. P. Hill lost his usually strong will, Richard Anderson staged a poor excuse for an assault on Cemetery Ridge with undisciplined, poorly-led Carolinian troops (rather than the Virginians that Dowdey, the Virginian, favors), and Ewell did not adequately prepare his troops for their attack. While Dowdey concedes that Lee, â€Å"alone in the center of the vacuum, could not have been less aware of the total collapse of co-ordination† (240). However, he implies, Lee’s unawareness was not his fault, but that of usually-reliable subordinates who curiously failed all at once. The work ends somewhat abruptly, with Lee’s broken army withdrawing from Pennsylvania after Pickett’s failed charge (in which the general whose name it bears appears as a minor figure) and returning to Virginia; the author offers no broad conclusion or explanation of the battle’s meaning within a larger context. Dowdey, primarily a fiction writer and college instructor who also produced numerous histories of the Army of Northern Virginia, approaches the work with a storyteller’s vigor and flair, writing this history with a novelist’s attention to visual details and his characters’ personalities and quirks. Frequently, he aims to stir the reader’s attention by adding what his characters may have said or thought in rich, occasionally overstated terms. For example, he deems Ewell â€Å"this quaint and lovable character† (121); Jubal Early becomes â€Å"the bitter man [who] became as passionate in his hate for the Union as he had formerly been in its defense† (123); and Union general Daniel Sickles (one of the few figures for whom he shows genuine scorn) is â€Å"an unsavory, showy, and pugnacious character from New York who went further on brassy self-confidence and politicking . . . than many a better man went on ability† (203). In trying give his characters personality, Dowdey writes often picturesque and lively prose but also offers a somewhat distorted picture that more detached academic historians may find objectionable. For example, while Lee can do no wrong, Jefferson Davis, the Confederacy’s much-reviled president, appears as nearly as much a villain as Longstreet. Of Davis, Dowdey writes: â€Å"The crisis [in the South’s military fortunes] was caused largely by the defense policies of the president. . . . Among the limitations of this self-aware gentleman was an inability to acknowledge himself in the wrong† (14). As a Lee apologist, Dowdey implicitly blames David for the South’s collapse, though he wavers on this by adding: â€Å"Lincoln had at his disposal unlimited wealth, the organized machinery of government, a navy, the war potential of heavy industry, and a four-to-one manpower superiority. Davis led a disorganized movement in self-determinism composed of proud and fiercely individualistic provincials (15-16). Dowdey comments little about the South in general and does not directly glorify the Southern cause, though he also refrains from any mention of slavery or racism. He seems to simply accept the South as it was, writing his works to illustrate a particularly regionalist sense of pride, if not in its plantation past, then certainly in Lee, its most shining example of military leadership and manhood. He reveals, perhaps unintentionally, his own sense of romance about the South when he writes: â€Å"In a land where the age of chivalry was perpetuated, the military leader embodied the gallantry, the glamour, and the privilege of the aristocrat in a feudal society† (15). Characters like Lee, he implies, gave the South respectability and nobility, while lesser individuals, like the supposedly duplicitous, disloyal Longstreet and the rigid, arrogant Davis, somehow stained it and failed to match its ideals. Despite Dowdey’s biases, he cannot be faulted for failing to do research. He includes a short bibliographic essay at the end, explaining his sources’ strengths and limitations. In addition to using many secondary sources, he relies heavily on participants’ personal documents, such as letters and memoirs, though he concedes that â€Å"the eyewitness accounts are subject to the fallibility of memory, and many of the articles suffer the distortion of advocacy or indictment† (353). This last comment is telling, because Dowdey himself neither advocates nor indicts the Old South, but rather aims to depict the military aspects. The result is a work that shows clear fondness for the South’s self-image as an embattled land of chivalry, but to his credit, Dowdey does not excoriate the North or its leaders. Lincoln scarcely appears in this volume, but the author pays some compliments to Union generals whom historians have seen less favorably, such as Joseph Hooker (whom Lee soundly defeated at Chancellorsville) or George Meade (who won at Gettysburg but failed to pursue and destroy the remains of Lee’s army as it withdrew). Death of a Nation is not a comprehensive history of the battle of Gettysburg, but neither does it claim to be. Instead, it is an often-entertaining, well-researched account of the Southern side’s participation, including its ill-starred behind-the-scenes planning and the personal dynamics among the commanders who underperformed at this key point in the war. Though Dowdey’s conclusion is so brief as to be unsatisfactory, one can draw one’s own conclusion from this volume’s title and the battle it describes: that defeat at Gettysburg meant the Confederacy’s failure to win its nationhood. Dowdey does not openly lament this fact, but instead shows the process that made this failure a reality. Dowdey, C. (1958). Death of a Nation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Nursing Relection Essay

This essay will reflect on my personal and professional development during my first year on the nursing diploma programme. I will do this by discussing my experience with the five essential skills clusters which include care, compassion and communication, medicine management and nutrition and fluid management. I will relate the five skills by showing an understanding of a recognised model of reflection. Reflection, is a way of analysing past incidents to promote learning and improve safety, in the delivery of health care in practice. For the purposes of this essay I have chosen the Gibbs reflective cycle model (Gibbs, 1988, cited in O’Caroll & Park, 2007, p86), will be followed, as it gives an opportunity to produce a structured account of the discussion. Gibbs (1988) consists of six stages to complete one cycle which is able to improve my nursing practice continuously and learning from the experience for better practice in the future. The cycle starts with a description of the situation, next is to analysis of the feelings, third is an evaluation of the experience, fourth stage is an analysis to make sense of the experience, fifth stage is a conclusion of what else could I have done and final stage is an action plan to prepare if the situation arose again. In order to respect the patient’s and staff member’s confidentiality (Nursing Midwifery Council, (NMC), the code of standards of conduct, performance, and ethics for nurses and midwives, 2008), the precise location of this placement will not be named. Consent (NMC, 2008) has been obtained from patients mentioned within this essay, although in the interest of maintaining confidentiality (NMC, 2008) of the patients, therefore pseudonyms will be used. Both of the placement areas I was allocated were general children’s wards which both included a day unit and inpatient beds for surgical and paediatric patients. A children’s ward provides health care for children aged from birth to seventeen. The role of any nurse including children’s nurses is to play a major role in promoting healthy behaviours (Moules and Ramsey, 1998). Nursing a child is not just a question of caring for a miniature adult. You have to understand how a healthy child develops towards adulthood and know how to minimise the impact of illness or hospital admission on the child. This involves working in partnership with the parents, or whoever looks after the child at home. Another factor that complicates treatment of the younger child is that of communication. While adults can express what they feel and need or identify the severity and nature of pain a child may not be able to communicate in such detail and the nurse needs to interpret behaviour and reactions intelligently. Children’s nurses need to be able to spot when a child’s health takes a turn for the worse, which can happen rapidly. (NHS, 2011) Health problems can have an effect on a child’s development and it’s vital to work with the child’s family or carers to ensure that he or she does not suffer additionally due to the stress of being ill or in hospital. I was both excited and apprehensive about starting my placement on this ward. I was excited because this was going to be a new experience and the opportunity to gain an insight into different illnesses and conditions, but I felt apprehensive because I was unsure of what to expect in terms of how illnesses affect an individual and their parents and what challenges they may face and how I would respond. I was conscious of my lack of experience and knowledge of illnesses and viewed this as a potential weakness, which I thought it was imperative to be self – aware of my personal strengths and weaknesses before I commenced my placement. Self – awareness is also essential to be able to interact effectively with patients. Personal beliefs and opinions can influence either negatively or positively, in the way of viewing other individuals. Understanding strengths, weaknesses, and the ability to reflect on personal characteristics, are necessary for remaining non – judgemental. The NMC (2008, code of conduct), states as nurses we must make the care of people our first concern by treating them as individuals and respecting their dignity. I know it is imperative to focus on treating the patient and not the behaviour. My mentor gave me an overview of the different types of patients we would see, which included their different health diagnosis, and also their individual rehabilitation and recovery plan, which helped me to have an insight into the needs of each patient and how illness can impact on an individual’s life. I felt more confident after my mentor had given me this information to be able to approach each individual patient and to be able to start to build a nurse patient  relationship. Brown & Eby (2005, p63) suggests that a nurse – patient relationship has three phases: – these are th e orientation phase, the working phase, and the termination phase. Many people including myself believe first impressions usually form a lasting impression so I am very conscious on how I introduce myself to others. On introducing myself to the patients on the unit I wanted to establish a rapport, which is the foundation of the nurse patient relationship (Timmins, 2007, p438). I wanted to show a warm, caring and compassionate person to enable trust and respect to develop with each patient which is an essential requirement of caring. Caring and compassion is a natural warm, informal communication skill, which is an important part of social exchange (Baughan, Smith, 2008, p3). Roach (Roach, 1987, cited in Eby & Brown, 2009, p50) suggests there are 5 attributes of caring which are â€Å"the 5 C†s. These are commitment, which is to provide the care necessary for each patient, Compassion that involves sharing in the emotional feelings of another and showing empathy which means trying to understand how another person feels. Competence of understanding and applying the nursing process by problem solving and the decision making process. Confidence (believe in oneself), and self – confidence to enable to gain trust of the clients, and confidence of the clients to trust the nurse. Finally, having a conscience and having an ethical conviction or belief about what is right or wrong, and acting in accordance of the nursing profession. I wanted to spend quality time getting to know each patient on an individual basis to enable each patient to be able to develop a relationship based upon trust, honesty and mutual respect. I wanted each patient to be able to trust me and have the confidence in my ability to offer the appropriate care and support to meet their individual needs. The ability to empathise and relate to each patient’s emotions is fundamental in showing care and compassion. The ability to understand and perceive feelings and their meanings are at the core of empathy. (Reynolds & Scott, 2000, 31, (1), p226). Having an understanding of what it would be like to be in a patient’s position enables interaction and engagement to be more supportive and motivated which I wanted to convey to the patients on the unit and show positive regard. I was looking forward to spending time speaking to each patient and getting to  know them over the duration of my placement within an inpatient setting, as this would help me to further develop the communication skills that I learned in my first placement , which would also enable me to develop my nursing skills further. Communication is an essential component needed for the nurse patient relationship and is at the heart of good nursing care (Stein – Parbury, 2009, p274), and therefore effective communication skills are crucial. May (2004, p488) suggests communication is a complex two way process that involves passing a message between people using verbal or non-verbal communication skills. Showing genuine interest and concern is necessary to allow the patient to speak openly and feel comfortable within the conversation. The tone and mannerisms ‘paralinguistic’ used during the conversation and the patient’s perception of this will either enhance the relationship or inhibit the development. A comment made can be damaging to self – esteem and identity (Miller, 2002, 17, 9, p46). I felt comfortable communicating with the patient’s and I feel I have good communication skills which is one of my interpersonal strengths, although I did feel a little cautious at times , for example if I was asked a question of which I was unsure of the answer. I observed my mentor and other health professionals engage in conversation with the patients in these situations first before engaging in a meaning conversation, to ensure I was using effective and appropriate communication skills and remained objective. The level of interaction and communication I received from each patient did vary initially which reflected on the age of the individual and their parents understanding, and also on their ability to trust me as a student nurse. Listening is one of the most important skills needed for communication. This non – verbal communication will establish a lot of valuable information to the patient’s wishes and concerns. The information given will also give an insight into the care needed and allow time to offer an appropriate reply. It is equally important to offer gestures of intense listening such as good eye contact, facial expressions, and appropriate nodding to acknowledge a  general interest. Listening to the patient’s will also give the opportunity to observe their body language and to observe any conflicting areas of speech and movement that may suggest they are uncomfortable with certain topics or are experiencing symptoms of cognitive impairment. I wanted to show I was listening to each individual and I was genuinely interested in what they were saying to me and to develop the patient’s trust so they could be open and honest with me and be able to disclose their thoughts and feelings based upon mutual trust and respect. The care, compassion, and communication skills I demonstrated to the patients on the ward were paramount for a therapeutic relationship to develop. A therapeutic relationship will be of mutual benefit to meet the holistic needs of the patient and for nurse to gather the relevant information to offer the appropriate interventions (McQueen, 2000, 9, p724). I was particularly looking forward to being able to develop my knowledge and skills in medication management during this placement. Medicine management relates to the safe use of medicines to ensure patient’s get the maximum benefit from the medicines they need, while at the same time minimising potential harm. (Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, (MHRA), 2004 p3). I did have some opportunity in my first placement to administer medication to patients, so I did have some knowledge into how to administer medication correctly and also in accordance with the NMC medication guidelines (NMC, 2010). I gained some confidence in my ability to be able to administer medication to patients safely from my first placement and was able to demonstrate safe practices from the onset of my second placement. I knew it was imperative that I adhered to the eight rights of medication which are the right patient, right medicine, right time, right date, right dose, right route, right preparation and the right documentation, which needed to be applied to each patient before I administered any medication. I was extremely conscious of the accountability nurses face in relation to medication management and therefore I wanted to learn as much as possible during this placement to ensure I was competent and also familiarise myself with the legislation that underpins medication management such as the Medicines Act, (1968), misuse of drugs act (1971). All administration of medication needed to be accurately recorded in  accordance to the NMC guidelines and Trust () policy. Nutrition and hydration is an important aspect of maintaining good health and childhood diseases can often be complicated by poor nutrition. Patient B has type 1 diabetes and is treated by insulin injections twice daily. Diabetes develops when the body is unable to produce the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas (Diabetes UK, p4, 2008). Patient B is also overweight with a body mass index (BMI) of 27 and is considered to be clinically obese. Patient B also suffers from regular urinary tract infections (UTI). When Patient B was admitted to the ward in October, he received an initial baseline nutritional assessment following the clinical guidelines of the National Institute For Health And Clinical Excellence (NICE, 2006), Essence Of Care (DH, 2003, P89), and also implemented by . An intervention plan identified for Patient B’s nutritional needs to be closely monitored and nutritional tools such as a daily food and fluid intake charts and a weekly food menu chart were to be used to record an accurate account of his diet and fluid intake. Patient B’s weight also needed to be monitored and recorded on a weekly basis. The intervention plan also highlighted that a poor diet and fluid intake was a trigger factor into why Patient B’s health was deteriorating. Supporting Patient B to maintain a healthy diet and accurately recording the nutritional information became part of my daily routine while on shift, which gave me an invaluable insight into the importance of monitoring a patients daily diet and fluid intake, and also the importance of accurate documentation and continuity of care. Good record keeping is essential to the provision of safe and effective care (NMC, 2009). Due to monitoring Patient B’s fluid and diet intake, it became apparent to that Patient B was becoming reluctant to maintain a regular diet independently and also his fluid intake was slowly decreasing which was having an impact on both his diabetes and his physical health. My mentor approached me and asked if I would like to carry out an assessment and formulate a care plan for patient B, I was excited and did feel I had gained enough knowledge and understanding of this process during my two long placements. To formulate a care plan, I first needed to identify the current risks that were present or were likely to occur. A risk relates to a negative event or an adverse affect, which is likely to cause harm (, 2009 p5). I needed to use an evidence-based approach by ensuring all the relevant data relating to Patient B’s current health care needs were accurate and apply an evidence-based approach to minimize the risk. Once I obtained all the relevant information from Patient B’s care documents and nutritional assessment tools I was then able to plan an appropriate plan of care and intervention plan based upon the identified risks. The main areas of risk I identified were Patient B’s parents also needed guidance in helping him maintain a healthy diet and fluid intake. During my placement I also administered an intra muscular (IM) cytotoxic injection to a patient A. During the administration process it was imperative that I applied infection, prevention and control procedures. The risk of infection is always present to both staff and patients and therefore Infection Prevention and Control procedures are aimed at breaking the infection chain (, 2011, P5). I initially felt overwhelmed by the process as there appeared to be a lot of precautions needed but after I had observed my mentor several times and understood the process, I felt more at ease with the procedure. The process I followed was hand hygiene ensuring I washed my hands before starting the procedure and applying my personal protective equipment (PPE) such as my gloves and apron, the safe use and disposal of sharps ensuring the Needle was not bent or broken before use or disposal and the needle was safely discarded into a cytotoxic sharps container. All PPE along with items used which contained bodily fluid from the patient was discarded into clinical waste before washing my hands after completing the procedure. On reflection of my experience on my placements, I think I would do exactly the same. I feel proud of what I have achieved so far and continued to develop my skills and enhanced my knowledge from my first placement. I feel I have become more aware and confident within the 5 key clusters of care I have discussed within this essay and I have demonstrated my willingness to learn and demonstrated a professional attitude throughout both of my  placement settings. I feel my experience gained has been very positive and I have learnt new skills and have gained confidence in my ability needed to be a nurse. Although looking back on my experiences, there are areas I would change for future placements. I would prepare better for each placement by ensuring I research further around the specific client group and setting. I feel that this would have been very beneficial to me in my second placement as I felt I was not fully prepared when I administered my first injection, and how each individual patient may be affected in different ways. My first week on placement I was still a little unsure how to communicate with some patients and although my communication skills will develop further with experience, I feel if I was better prepared I would have been more confident and relaxed with the patients and the environment and able to communicate effectively from the onset. Overall I feel this has been a positive experience and I have gained a good insight into the importance of developing and maintaining my nursing skills in relation to care, compassion and communication, medicine management, infection prevention and control, nutrition and hydration, and organisation of care.